Monte Testaccio, an ancient Roman garbage dump, stands as a reminder of the city’s consumption and trade practices. Located on the outskirts of Rome, this massive mound of broken pottery reaches the height of the Pantheon, towering over the warehouse district. The majority of the pottery shards that comprise Monte Testaccio are remnants of amphorae, specifically those used for transporting olive oil. An estimated 53 million amphorae were discarded here, with a significant portion originating from the province of Baetica in modern-day Andalusia, Spain.
During the first to third centuries AD, vast quantities of olive oil were imported to Rome. These amphorae, each capable of holding approximately 70 liters of oil, were shipped from Spain and North Africa. The journey of these amphorae began on estates in Spain, where both free laborers and slaves worked the olive groves. After being filled with oil, the amphorae were transported via river and sea to the bustling harbor of Portus, near Rome.
The Middle Ages, spanning roughly from the 5th to the late 15th century AD, was a period marked by the rise and fall of kingdoms, the spread of religions, and significant social and political upheaval. Amidst this backdrop, numerous secret societies emerged, each shrouded in mystery and intrigue. These organizations often operated in the shadows, their activities and members cloaked in secrecy. Some aimed to preserve ancient knowledge, others to influence political events, and a few to advance spiritual enlightenment. Here, we explore the top ten secret societies of the Middle Ages, delving into their origins, purposes, and enduring legacies.
The Knights Templar, officially known as the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, was founded in 1119 AD by a small group of knights led by Hugues de Payens. Established to protect Christian pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land, the Templars quickly rose to prominence, becoming one of the most powerful military orders during the Crusades. They were renowned for their warrior skills, financial acumen, and extensive network of fortifications. The Templars also amassed significant wealth, leading to their role as early bankers.
Ongoing investigations into the contents of the Tomb of Cerberus, discovered in October 2023 in Giugliano, Naples, led to the decision to open one of the two sarcophagi found there. The stone box had lain sealed and entombed for over 2,000 years. First a non-invasive investigation was made using a micro-camera directed into a small opening in the sarcophagus. It revealed a well-preserved burial featuring a supine body covered by a shroud, likely mineralized due to the unique climatic conditions of the burial chamber.
Surrounding the body were various grave goods, including several unguentaria (small bottles used for storing oils and perfumes) and strigils (tools used for scraping the skin in bathing rituals).
Having found such a wealth of important archaeological evidence, the decision was taken to remove the stone lid, so further testing of the contents could be carried out.
The contents of the sarcophagus retrieved from the Tomb of Cerberus, Naples, includes grave goods that accompanied the deceased as they were laid to rest. (Italian Ministry of Culture)
There has long been speculation about how the pyramids of Egypt were constructed. While there may be no single answer to this question, a new study provides evidence to suggest that at least one of Egypt’s ancient pyramids was built using a special type of hydraulic lift system.
The structure that is claimed to have been constructed using hydraulics is the steppe Pyramid of Djoser, which is the oldest standing pyramid found in Egypt. It was constructed around 2,680 BC on the orders of the pharaoh Djoser, who ruled during the Third Dynasty of Egypt’s Old Kingdom period.
Included as part of a larger assembly of temples and other sacred spaces, this structure is just under 200 feet (60 meters) tall and was erected around four miles (six kilometers) west of the River Nile. The Pyramid of Djoser is located on the Saqqara Plateau approximately nine miles (15 kilometers) south of Giza, where the Great Pyramids of Egypt were constructed starting about a century after Djoser’s monument was completed.
In the Middle Ages, alchemists were notoriously secretive and didn't share their knowledge with others. Danish Tycho Brahe was no exception. Consequently, we don't know precisely what he did in the alchemical laboratory located beneath his combined residence and observatory, Uraniborg, on the now Swedish island of Ven.
Only a few of his alchemical recipes have survived, and today, there are very few remnants of his laboratory. Uraniborg was demolished after his death in 1601, and the building materials were scattered for reuse.
However, during an excavation in 1988-1990, some pottery and glass shards were found in Uraniborg's old garden. These shards were believed to originate from the basement's alchemical laboratory. Five of these shards - four glass and one ceramic - have now undergone chemical analyses to determine which elements the original glass and ceramic containers came into contact with.
Even if the Bible has familiar stories known through cultural osmosis, there are many surprising elements within its pages that might be less well-known. Here are five astonishing things you might not believe are actually in the Bible.
First, the Bible references an animal called the "re'em" nine times. The precise identity of this creature is unclear, as the text lacks illustrations. Theories range from antelope to rhinoceros, with some translations even suggesting a unicorn. This interpretation has persisted in some modern Christian circles, fueling debate over the re'em's true nature.
Second, the Bible may hint at the Earth's shape long before it was scientifically accepted. Isaiah 40:22 mentions God sitting "above the circle of the Earth." While "circle" is not the same as "sphere," the Hebrew word used can also imply a vault, suggesting a three-dimensional aspect. This adds a layer of mystery about whether the Bible alluded to a spherical Earth.
Third, God's names in the Bible are diverse and sometimes puzzling. One less common name is "El Shaddai," used when speaking with patriarchs like Abraham. While "El" is a known term for God in ancient languages, "Shaddai" has various translations, from "mountain" to "destroyer." This reflects the complexity and depth of divine references in the text.
The ancient city of Rome has left an indelible mark on history, its influence extending far beyond the realm of politics and culture. One of the most modern areas where this legacy can be seen is in video game design and architecture. This exploration reveals how deeply intertwined ancient Rome's architectural marvels are with today's digital landscapes.
From colossal amphitheaters to intricate temples, ancient Rome's architectural brilliance continues to inspire contemporary creations. Video game developers often draw from this rich heritage to create immersive worlds that captivate players. By understanding these historical influences, you can appreciate the depth and detail that go into designing your favorite games.
Websites for video game news, reviews, and guides, like Slottivity, regularly cover new offerings at length, but today we're going a bit deeper on a wider theme. Wear something comfortable because we're going way back in time.
Konstantine Panegyres/The Conversation
The first recorded victor at the Olympics was Coroebus of Elis. A cook by profession, Coroebus won the event called the “stadion” – a footrace of just under 200 meters, run in a straight line.
Coroebus was victorious in the year 776 BC, but this was probably not the year of the first Olympic games.
A few ancient writers, such as the historian Aristodemus of Elis (who lived in the 2nd century AD or earlier), believed there had been as many as 27 Olympic contests prior to 776 BC, but the results had never been recorded because people before that time did not care about recording the names of the winners.
The games were held every four years at Olympia, a site in Western Greece that had a famous temple to the god Zeus. They started in mid-August and were part of a religious festival dedicated to Zeus.
Archaeologists in Egypt have uncovered 63 mudbrick tombs and several simple burials containing a collection of gold foils from the 26th Dynasty of the Late Period. This correlates with the Ptolemaic era (305 BC-30 BC), with a number of bronze coins from the Hermetic period also found during the mission's excavations at the Tel Al-Deir cemetery in the new city of Damat.
Dr. Muhammad Ismail Khalid, Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, stated that this discovery aligns with the directives of the Minister of Tourism and Antiquities to prioritize Egyptian archaeological missions and uncover more secrets of ancient Egyptian civilization. The Egyptian Archaeological Mission of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, who carried out the dig, provided all this information in a press release.
In a bizarre find, a vacationer came across a Roman sarcophagus on the northern Bulgarian Black Sea coast near Varna. The find was reported to the local authorities, leading to a swift response by the Varna Archaeological Museum and the regional office of the Culture Ministry Directorate for the Protection of Cultural Heritage, who are now examining it.
The discovery was made on Tuesday, by a former law enforcement officer who was holidaying at the Sts. Constantine and Helena resort. While enjoying the beach near a recently completed construction site, he came across the sarcophagus and immediately contacted the local police.
A police patrol, along with archaeological specialists, the Varna Archaeological Museum and a representative from the local office of the Culture Ministry Directorate for the Protection of Cultural Heritage make an initial inspection and surmised that it likely dated to the Roman era, specifically the 2nd to 3rd century AD, reported Bulgarian National Television.
In the annals of history, certain names emerge as symbols of tragedy and injustice, individuals who bear the weight of collective misfortune. Robert Hubert, a French watchmaker hailing from Rouen, France, is one such figure. His name is forever linked to one of the most catastrophic events in the history of London: the Great Fire of 1666. Despite a bewildering confession and glaring contradictions, Hubert became the convenient scapegoat for an accidental cataclysm that devastated the city.
Between the 2nd and 6th of September 1666, a massive fire erupted on Pudding Lane in the City of London. The fire began in the bakery of Thomas Farriner and rapidly spread due to the tightly packed timber-framed buildings and a strong easterly wind. The blaze consumed nearly 80 per cent of the old city, including 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, and iconic buildings such as St. Paul’s Cathedral
The inferno's relentless path of destruction left a trail of devastation in its wake, turning London into a smoldering ruin. Amidst the chaos and confusion, the hunt for a culprit began, and Robert Hubert would unwittingly find himself at the center of a storm that would lead to his execution.
Characterized by political fragmentation and foreign rule, the Third Intermediate Period in Egypt saw a country divided among competing nations and religious adversaries, ushering in an era founded on collapse, riddled with flux and transformation. Amidst the fading echoes of pharaonic glory, shifting powers from Libya, Nubia, and beyond clung to their right to rule, only to be undone by those who seized opportune weakness. Lasting from 1070 to 664 BC, this was a time when the old gave way to the new, when cultures entwined, weaving a delicate tapestry of admiration and turmoil.
The Bronze Age Collapse
Archaeologists and anthropologists continue to search for artifacts and skeletal remains that will reveal more details about the daily lives and lifestyles of the Neanderthals, the human species that disappeared from the face of the Earth approximately 40,000 years ago.
One area of research that has attracted a lot of attention is the Neanderthal diet, which appears to have had quite a bit of overlap with the prehistoric modern human diet. While previous research revealed that Neanderthals hunted large animals for food, just like humans, recent studies have found that they also killed and roasted various types of small birds, showing just how complex and diverse their diets really were.
Dentistry in the medieval period was a challenging and often painful experience, reflecting the limited medical knowledge and resources of the time. Unlike today, the absence of anesthetics and modern sterilization techniques made dental procedures quite distressing and even dangerous.
Medieval people did care about their teeth, using primitive but effective methods to maintain dental hygiene. They used abrasive substances like mint, pepper, and salt to clean their teeth, similar to how toothpaste functions today, despite not fully understanding the concept of dental plaque.
Dental problems were prevalent among the rich due to their higher sugar consumption, leading to more frequent tooth decay. However, the poor often faced tooth erosion from using their teeth as tools.
Medieval treatments for toothaches included remedies based on the now-debunked theory of the tooth worm, which was thought to cause dental pain by burrowing into teeth. Henbane seeds were burned and the smoke inhaled to supposedly kill these tooth worms, though this method was toxic and dangerous.
University of York
Archaeological evidence from the world-famous Mesolithic site of Star Carr in North Yorkshire has shown that hunter-gatherers likely kept an orderly home by creating ‘zones’ for particular domestic activities.
The research team from the University of York and the University of Newcastle, looked at microscopic evidence from the use of stone tools found inside three structures - potentially cone-like in shape or domed - dating to over 11,000 years ago at the Star Carr site.
They found that there was a range of activities that were likely to have taken place inside the ‘home’, including wood, bone, antler, plant, hide, meat and fish related work. The researchers then plotted out spatial patterns for these activities to pin-point where within the dwelling these activities might have occurred.
Dr Jess Bates, from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology said:
Excavations near the village of Debelt in southeastern Bulgaria produced an astonishing artifact that changes the understanding of the history of Christianity in the country. At the site of an ancient Roman Empire colony known as Deultum, archaeologists unearthed a rolled-up silver sheet amulet dating to the late second or early third century AD.
Clearly Christian in nature, the amulet references Jesus Christ and the archangels Gabriel and Michael, and also includes the sign of the cross incorporated into Christ’s name. According to its discoverers, this is the oldest Christian relic ever found in Bulgaria, and as such it firmly grounds Christian practice in the era when Deultum was a thriving port city and Roman Empire colony occupied by retired veterans of the Roman legions.
Life during the Shōgun era in Japan was marked by significant social, political, and cultural transformations. This period began with the rise of the Tokugawa shogunate, established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after the end of the Sengoku, or Warring States period. The Sengoku period was characterized by intense conflict and power struggles among regional feudal lords, resulting in a century of upheaval. With the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan entered an era of relative peace and stability.
Æthelwealh, King of Sussex, emerges from the mists of early medieval England as a figure of considerable interest and significance. His reign, which spanned from around 660 to 685 AD, was marked by pivotal events that influenced the socio-political landscape of southern England.
Despite the scarcity of detailed contemporary records, the available historical, archaeological, and hagiographical sources provide a fascinating glimpse into the life and times of Æthelwealh, revealing a ruler who played a crucial role in the Christianization of his kingdom and navigated the complex interplay of power among the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
Around 6,200 BC, the global climate experienced a dramatic shift. Temperatures dropped, sea levels rose, and the southern Levant, encompassing modern-day Israel, the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon, southern Syria, and the Sinai desert, faced a severe drought. Previously, archaeologists believed this abrupt climate event, known as the 8.2ka event, led to the widespread abandonment of coastal settlements in the region. However, new research suggests that at least one village, Habonim North, not only survived but thrived during this period.
Archaeologists excavating the Aççana Mound, also known as Eski Alalah, have made an amazing discovery: a cuneiform tablet detailing a shopping list of purchases from almost 3,500 years ago. The tablet, dating back to the 15th century BC, is inscribed with cuneiform text written in Akkadian, an extinct East Semitic language once spoken in ancient Mesopotamia.
The Aççana Mound is a tell, or a type of archaeological mound that has accumulated over centuries of continuous occupation, located in the Reyhanlı district of the southern Turkish province of Hatay.
In the ancient world, the port city of Parion was a vital trading point for goods traveling from ancient Greece and the Aegean to the city of Istanbul, and all points beyond. While the city no longer exists, excavations in northwestern Turkey’s Canakkale province near the village of Kemer have uncovered many ruins and artifacts from Parion, including the remains of harbor facilities found in the southern section of the site. During the most recent excavation season, archaeologists were excited to discover a second port farther to the north, one that apparently served an entirely different function than its southern counterpart.
Modern humans evolved between 200,000 and 300,000 years ago, spreading across the globe around 100,000 years ago and developing diverse cultures. Despite these cultural differences, many myths share common themes, one being creation myths. Nearly every culture has a creation myth involving a magical entity forming the earth, seas, and sky. These stories often include a primordial ocean or a cosmic egg, and sometimes a primordial mother and father representing earth and sky.
Another common theme is the acquisition of fire. Many myths describe humans stealing fire from the gods, like Prometheus in Greek mythology or Maui in Māori tradition. Fire myths are found worldwide, from Native American tribes to African traditions, with animals often playing a role in bringing fire to humans.
Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin was a French magician who lived during the 19th century. Amongst other things, Robert-Houdin is commonly regarded today as the originator of the modern style of conjuring (the performance of magical tricks) and has even been dubbed by some as the ‘father of modern magic’. Robert-Houdin was a very successful magician during his lifetime, and some of his acts have even become classics.
His reputation was so great that he was requested during the 1850s by the French government to help put down a tribal rebellion in Algeria using his skills. This is surely a feat that not many magicians can boast about.
The architectural evolution of Egyptian temples is a critical glimpse into the ingenuity, religious fervor, and artistic prowess of one of the world's oldest and most enduring civilizations. Stretching across millennia, the design and construction of Egyptian temples not only reflect the shifting religious and political landscapes but also underscore the Egyptians' mastery of engineering and aesthetics. From the earliest structures in the Old Kingdom to the grandiose complexes of the Ptolemaic period, Egyptian temples evolved in complexity, scale, and purpose, leaving a major mark on the history of architecture. And most of all, it proves time and time again that the Ancient Egyptians placed great importance on their religious beliefs.
Archaeologists have made a groundbreaking discovery at the City of David in the Jerusalem Walls National Park. After 150 years of research, a massive fortification has been uncovered that protected the kings of Jerusalem. This fortification, a gigantic moat, was discovered during excavations at the Givati Parking Lot by the Israel Antiquities Authority and Tel Aviv University. Measuring at least nine meters (29.5 feet) deep and 30 meters (98.4 feet) wide, this monumental structure offers new insights into the ancient city's defenses.
Nestled within the majestic Sarawat Mountain range in western Saudi Arabia, the ancient beehives of the Maysan Governorate are a testament to a region boasting some of the most remarkable environmental engineering formations. These include around 1,200 beehives that once served as a crucial daily sustenance source for its early inhabitants.
The abandoned village of Kharfi, located south of Taif in the Maysan Governorate, houses the most impressive of these historical beehives, reports Arab News. Today, the Maysan Governorate’s honeybees are central to Saudi honey production and sales. These beekeeping sites, dating back to ancient times, highlight the early community’s enduring interest in honey production.
Michael Slack et al./The Conversation
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander readers are advised this article contains an image of deceased people, which is used with permission from the Traditional Owners.
In May 2020, as part of a legally permitted expansion of an iron ore mine, Rio Tinto destroyed an ancient rock shelter at Juukan Gorge in Puutu Kunti Kurrama Country in the Pilbara region of Western Australia.
Working with the Traditional Owners, we had excavated the shelter – known as Juukan 2 – in 2014, six years before its destruction. We found evidence Aboriginal people first used Juukan 2 around 47,000 years ago, likely throughout the last ice age, through to just a few decades before the cave was destroyed.
The ancient Greeks' passion for knowledge is noteworthy for its lasting impact on Western civilization. Their contributions to philosophy and politics have significantly influenced modern thought, and their historical observations offer crucial insights into ancient life and our understanding of the past. The origins of this fervor for knowledge can be traced back to the formation of Greece, or Hellas, where isolated communities emerged after the collapse of the advanced Mycenaean civilization around 1200 BC.
Following the Mycenaean collapse, the Greek Dark Ages began, characterized by the absence of written records and the decline of advanced urban centers. During this period, a culture based on farming and oral traditions replaced the previous bureaucratic systems. By the 9th century BC, the Greeks had begun to revive their economy and reestablish trade routes, leading to the Archaic period. This era saw the development of a new writing system influenced by the Phoenician alphabet, as well as significant advancements in art and architecture.
Samuel Pepys, the renowned English diarist and naval administrator, is well-known for his detailed accounts of life in the 17th century. While his diary entries from 1660 to 1669 provide rich insights into his everyday experiences, little is known about the latter part of his life. New research from the University of Cambridge has uncovered fascinating aspects of Pepys’ later years through his private collection of French fashion prints. These prints reveal Pepys’ ongoing fascination with fashion, particularly French styles, and his internal conflict over adopting these foreign trends.
A University of Cambridge press release explains how most of what we know about Samuel Pepys comes from the diary that he kept from 1660–69. He wrote about everything from women to parmesan cheese, and the Great Fire of London, but he also wrote a lot about clothes. However, Pepys lived for another 34 years and while surviving letters offer clues, we know less about the second, more privileged half of his life.
Marlo Avidon, a PhD researcher at Christ’s College, Cambridge, has delved into Pepys’ private collection of fashion prints housed in the Pepys Library at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The library holds one of the largest collections of 17th-century French fashion prints in the world, including volumes titled Habits de France and Modes de Paris. These volumes that contain over a hundred illustrations from 1670 to 1696, provide a unique glimpse into the fashion sensibilities of the time and Pepys’ personal tastes.
University of York
Flatfish, such as plaice, turbot and sole, were regularly consumed as part of a medieval meal, according to analysis of fishbone remains found at archaeological sites across Europe.
Previous research had shown that people ate flatfish during the medieval period, but until now it was unclear which types of flatfish they would have consumed and what this might tell us about fishing habits at that time.
Researchers from the University of York in collaboration with experts from France, Belgium and the Netherlands, identified plaice as the most popular flatfish, with flounder following close behind, and turbot, brill and Dover sole.
Not only were they able to identify the types of fish, but they found a pattern in how they were consumed, which suggested that the type of fish that was eaten at meal times was linked to the context in which they were consumed. Dover sole, for example, was only found in religious contexts, such as at monastery sites.